title

Long-term population dynamics of the elk (Alces alces) in south-west Poland from the earliest times until 2025

author(s)

Grzegorz Kopij (orcid: 0000-0001-7614-1983)

affiliation

Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences (Wrocław, Poland)

bibliography

Theriologia Ukrainica. 2026. Vol. 31: 126–142.

DOI

language

English, with Ukrainian summary, titles of tables, captures to figs

abstract

At the beginning of the third millennium, one of the most fascinating features of the European nature is its re-wilding. Especially promising is the return of giants, such as the wolf, lynx, brown bear, and elk. The latter is becoming widespread and common over most of its former range in Poland. In this paper, long-term population dynamic of this species in south-west Poland is traced from the earliest times to 2025. In the upper Palaeolithic (10 000–5500 BCE) and in the Neolithic era (5500–2100 BCE in south-west Poland), it was probably a widespread and common animal in south-west Poland, possibly the most common ungulate. Throughout the Middle Ages, the elk was one of the most important game animals in this region. However, hunting, especially intense during the Thiry Years War (1618–1648) eventually caused a sharp decline, so much that at the end of the 17th century the elk became extirpated in south-west Poland. After an absence in this region as a resident animal for nearly 300 years (1680–1980), the elk began to re-occupy its home ranges. By the end of 2000, eight such ranges could have been re-occupied. The total number of animals in these ranges is estimated at 24–48 individuals. However, 25 years later, at least 19 have been identified, including six ranges/sites where the species was evidently resident. In each such area, the number of resident elk could range between 5 and 10, giving a total of 100–200 resident animals. The areas possibly and confirmedly inhabited by elk are concentrated in the vicinity of Zielona Gora, Bory Dolnośląskie (Lower Silesian Forest), Western Sudety Mts, northern part of Wrocław hunting region, Central Opole province, and southern and northern parts of Upper Silesia. Remarkably, no resident elk have ever been recorded in the vast Stobrawa Forests (in Opole province and Upper Silesia). Most of the recorded animals were single wandering individuals (85.4%), occasionally two (11.5%), and only sporadically (3.1% of records) more than two individuals. The largest recorded herd was composed of six animals. Sex was determined in 58 cases; the sex ratio was therefore 0.59 : 0 41 (bulls to cows). In the near future, areas of confirmed occurrence of the elk may be established in these as well as in other regions of south-west Poland.

keywords

elk, Alces alces, rewilding of Europe, game, hunting, extinction, recovery, population estimation

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